Exploring and Learning – Introduction to Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition (2023)

If all goes well, a baby will be born around the 38th week of pregnancy. The fetus is at least partially responsible for its own birth as chemicals released by the developing fetal brain activate muscles in the mother's uterus to initiate the rhythmic contractions of labor. The contractions are initially about 15 minutes apart, but get faster over time. When the contractions reach an interval of two to three minutes, the mother is asked to assist with the contractions and help deliver the baby.

The newborn arrives with many behaviors intact

Newborns are already prepared to face the new world they are about to experience. As you can see in Table 7.2, Newborn Survival Reflexes, babies are endowed with a variety of reflexes, each providing an ability to help them survive the first few months of life while constantly learning new things. Routines that help them survive. and manipulate their environment.

In addition to reflexes, newborns have preferences: initially they like sweet foods, but by four months they become more open to salty foods (Beauchamp, Cowart, Menellia, & Marsh, 1994; Blass & Smith, 1992). ). They also prefer their mothers' scent. A single baby at six days of age has a much greater chance of returning to its own mother's pillow than to another baby's mother's pillow (Porter, Makin, Davis, and Christensen, 1992), and a newborn baby has a fondness for that, too Face . from his own mother (Bushnell, Sai & Mullin, 1989).

Although babies are willing to participate in some activities, they also contribute to their own development through their own behavior. A child's knowledge and skills increase as they chatter, speak, crawl, taste, grasp, play, and interact with objects in the environment (Gibson, Rosenzweig, & Porter, 1988; Gibson & Pick, 2000; Smith & Thelen, 2003 ). Parents can help in this process by offering the child a variety of activities and experiences. Research has found that animals raised in environments with newer objects and engaging in a variety of stimulating activities have more brain synapses and larger cerebral cortices and perform better on a variety of learning tasks than animals raised in more nuanced environments. Henderson and Muller, 1984). Similar effects are likely to occur in children who are given opportunities to play, explore, and interact with their environment (Soska, Adolph, & Johnson, 2010).

Cognitive development in childhood

Childhood is a time when changes happen quickly. The child grows physically and cognitive abilities also develop. During this time, the child learns to actively manipulate and control the environment and is initially exposed to societal demands, particularly the need to control the bladder and bowel. According to Erik Erikson, the challenges that the child faces in childhood are related to the development ofInitiative,competence, Youindependence. Children must learn to explore the world, to be independent and to find their way in the environment.

These skills don't come overnight. Neurological changes during childhood give children the ability to do some things at a certain age but prevent them from doing others. This fact was made clear by the pioneering work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (Figure 7.3). In the 1920s, Piaget conducted intelligence tests on children to determine what types of reasoning children were capable of. As they tested them, Piaget was intrigued, not so much by the children's correct answers as by the wrong answers. Piaget believed that the wrong answers children gave were not shots in the blue but represented specific ways of thinking unique to the child's developmental stage. Just as almost all babies learn to roll over before they learn to sit up and crawl before they walk, Piaget believed that children acquire cognitive abilities in a developmental order. This realization that children of different ages think fundamentally differently led to Piaget's ideaStages of the cognitive development model.

Piaget argued that children not only learn passively, but also actively seek to understand their world. He argued that children develop as they learn and matureSchema—Patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help them remember, organize, and act on information. Furthermore, Piaget thought that when children learn new things, they try to reconcile the new knowledge with existing schemes. Piaget believed that children use two different methods, which he called methods, to do thisAssimilationjaccomodation(see Figure 7.4, “Assimilation and Accommodation”).

When children useAssimilation, youUse schemas already developed to understand new information. Once children have learned a scheme for horses, they can name the striped animal they see at the zoo a horse instead of a zebra. Children adapt the existing scheme to new information and label new information with existing knowledge.accomodation, on the other hand implieslearn new information and thus change the scheme. When a mother says, "No, honey, that's a zebra, not a horse," the child can adapt the schema to the new stimulus and learns that there are different types of quadrupeds, only one of which is a horse. .

Piaget's most important contribution to understanding cognitive development, and the cornerstone of his theory, was the idea that development occurs in unique and distinct stages, each occurring at a specific point in time, sequentially, and one after the other. the world with new skills. Piaget's stages of cognitive development are summarized in Table 7.3, “Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development”.

Piaget's first stage of development was thissensorimotor stage,the cognitive phase, which begins at birth and lasts until about the second year of life. It is defined by the direct physical interactions babies have with the objects around them.. In this phase, babies form their first schemas with their primary senses: they see, hear, grasp, hold, shake and taste things in their environment.

During the sensorimotor phase, the use of the senses to perceive the world is so fundamental to the infant's understanding that, as far as he is concerned, objects do not exist unless the infant directly perceives objects. For example, Piaget found that if he first attracted babies to a toy and then covered it with a blanket, infants under six months pretended the toy had disappeared entirely: they never tried to find it under the blanket. Blanket, but he smiled anyway and reached out to her as she removed the blanket. Piaget found that children didn't realize until about eight months of age that the object was simply obscured and not gone. Piaget used the termpermanent objectrefers tothe child's ability to know that an object exists even when the object cannot be perceived.

Children under eight months do not understand object permanence.

Watch: Object Permanence [YouTube]:http://www.youtube.com/v/nwXd7WyWNHY

From about two years to about seven years., the kids go to thepreoperative phase. during this phaseChildren begin to use language and think about objects more abstractly, with the ability to form mental images; However, their understanding is more intuitive and they don't have much ability to reason or reason.. Thinking is preoperational, meaning the child is unable to mentally operate on or transform objects. In a study showing the magnitude of this deficiency, Judy DeLoache (1987) showed children a room in a doll's house. In the room, behind a small sofa, was a small toy. The researchers placed the children in another laboratory room that was an exact replica of the doll's house, but life-size. When asked to find the toy, the 2.5-year-olds didn't know where to look; They just couldn't switch through room size changes. The three-year-olds, on the other hand, immediately looked for the toy behind the sofa and showed that their operational skills improved.

Young children's inability to see transitions also causes them to beegocentric—unable to easily see and understand other people's points of view. Define developmental psychologiststhought theorylikethe ability to take another person's point of view, and the ability to do so increases rapidly during the preoperative period. In a demonstration of the developing theory of mind, a researcher shows a child a video of another child (let's call her Anna) putting a ball in a red box. Anna then leaves the room and the video shows an investigator moving the ball from the red box to the blue box while she is gone. As the video continues, Anna returns to the room. The child is then asked to point to the box where Anna will likely search to find her ball. Children under the age of four often cannot understand that Anna does not know that the ball has moved and predict that she will look for it in the blue box. From the age of four, however, children have developed a theory of thinking: they realize that different people can have different points of view and that Anna (despite being wrong) will still think the ball is still in the box.

After about seven to eleven years, the child moves to theconcrete operating phase, wascharacterized by a more frequent and precise use of transitions, operations, and abstract concepts, including those of time, space, and numbers. An important milestone in the concrete operating phase is the conservational development:the understanding that changes in the shape of an object do not necessarily imply changes in the quantity of the object. Children under the age of seven often think that a tall glass of milk contains more milk than a shorter, wider glass, and they continue to believe this even when they see the same milk spilled between glasses. It seems that these children only focus on one dimension (in this case the height of the cup) and ignore the other dimension (width). However, when children reach the concrete operating stage, their ability to understand such transformations makes them realize that while the milk looks different in different cups, the amount must be the same.

Children under the age of seven do not understand conservation principles.

See: "Conservation" [YouTube]:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=youtu.be

Around the age of 11, children enter theformale operative Phase, wascharacterized by the ability to think in abstract terms and to use scientific and philosophical approaches. Children in the formal operational phase are better able to systematically test alternative ideas to determine their impact on outcomes. For example, instead of haphazardly changing different aspects of a situation that don't allow for firm conclusions, they systematically make changes to one thing at a time and see the difference that particular change makes. They learn to think deductively, such as "if this, then that," and become able to imagine situations that "could be" rather than just those that actually exist.

Piaget's theories made a significant and enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Among his contributions is the idea that children are not just passive recipients of information, but are actively involved in acquiring new knowledge and understanding the world around them. This general idea has spawned many other theories of cognitive development, all aimed at helping us better understand the development of a child's information processing skills (Klahr & MacWhinney, 1998; Shrager & Siegler, 1998). Furthermore, the extensive research that inspired Piaget's theory generally supported his beliefs about the order in which perception develops. Piaget's work has also been applied to many fields; For example, many teachers use Piaget's stages to develop pedagogical approaches that target the level children are ready for (Driscoll, 1994; Levin, Siegler, & Druyan, 1990).

Over the years, Piaget's ideas have been refined. For example, object permanence is now believed to evolve gradually rather than instantaneously, as a true stage model would predict, and can sometimes evolve much earlier than Piaget anticipated. Renée Baillargeon and colleagues (Baillargeon, 2004; Wang, Baillargeon, and Brueckner, 2004) placed infants in a habituation environment in which they observed an object being placed completely concealed behind a screen. The researchers then made the object reappear in a different location behind a different screen. Babies who saw this pattern of events stayed longer at the screen than babies who witnessed the same object being physically moved between screens. These data suggest that the babies were aware that the object still existed despite being hidden behind the screen and therefore showed object permanence as early as three months of age, rather than the predicted eight months.

Another factor that may have surprised Piaget is the extent to which a child's social environment affects learning. In some cases, children develop new ways of thinking and retreat to old ones depending on the type of task they are performing, the circumstances they are in, and the type of language used to teach them (Courage & Howe, 2002). ) And children in different cultures show slightly different patterns of cognitive development. Dasen (1972) found that children in non-Western cultures progressed to the next developmental stage about a year later than children in Western cultures, and this level of education also influenced cognitive development. In conclusion, Piaget's theory probably underestimated the contribution of environmental factors to social development.

Recent theories (Cole, 1996; Rogoff, 1990; Tomasello, 1999) are largely based on thesociocultural theoryby the Russian scholar Lev Vygotsky (1962, 1978) argue soCognitive development in the child is not entirely isolated but occurs at least in part through social interactions.. These scholars argue that children's thinking develops through constant interactions with more competent others, including parents, peers, and teachers.

An extension of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory is the idea ofcollaborative learning, in whichChildren serve as teachers and students. This approach is commonly used in classrooms to enhance learning and increase accountability and respect for others. When children work together in groups to learn material, they can help and support each other's learning and learn from one another as individuals, thereby reducing bias (Aronson, Blaney, Stephan, Sikes, & Snapp, 1978; Brown, 1997).

Social Development of Childhood

Through remarkable increases in cognitive abilities, children learn to interact with and understand their environment. But these cognitive abilities are only part of the changes that take place during childhood. Equally crucial is the development of a child's social skills: the ability to understand, anticipate and connect with others around them.

Knowing yourself: The development of the self-concept

One of the most important milestones in a child's social development is learning about their own existence (Figure 7.5). This self-awareness is known asknowledge, and the content of consciousness is known asself concept. Öself conceptesa representation or knowledge schema that contains knowledge about ourselves, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, and the knowledge that we exist as individuals(Kagan, 1991).

Some animals, including chimpanzees, orangutans, and perhaps dolphins, have at least a primitive sense of identity (Boysen & Himes, 1999). In one study (Gallup, 1970) researchers drew a red dot on the foreheads of anesthetized chimpanzees and then placed each animal in a cage with a mirror. When the chimpanzees woke up and looked in the mirror, they touched the dot on their faces, not the dot on the faces in the mirror. These actions suggest that the chimpanzees understood that they were looking at themselves and not at other animals, so we can assume that they are able to recognize that they exist as individuals. On the other hand, most other animals, including dogs, cats, and monkeys, for example, never realize it is them in the mirror.

Babies with a similar red dot on their foreheads recognize themselves in the mirror in the same way as chimpanzees do, around 18 months of age (Povinelli, Landau, & Perilloux, 1996). A child's knowledge of himself continues to develop as he grows. At the age of two, the baby becomes aware of its gender, whether it is a boy or a girl. By age four, self-descriptions are likely to be based on physical characteristics such as hair color and possessions, and by age six children are capable of understanding basic emotions and trait concepts and making statements such as "I, I am a good person" (Harter, 1998 ).

Soon after children start school (around the age of five or six), they start doing itMaking comparisons to other children, a process known as social comparison. For example, a child may describe himself as faster than one child but slower than another (Moretti & Higgins, 1990). According to Erikson, the important component of this process is the development ofcompetencejAutonomy—Recognition of one's own abilities in relation to other children. And children show an increasing awareness of social situations: they understand that other people look at and judge them the same way they look at and judge others (Doherty, 2009).

Successful relationship with others: attachment

One of the most important behaviors a child must learn is to be accepted by others: developing close and meaningful social relationships.The emotional bonds we form with those we feel closest to, and particularly the bonds an infant forms with their mother or primary caregiver, are calledattached file(Cassidy and Shaver, 1999). See examples in Figure 7.6.

As late as the 1930s, psychologists believed that children raised in institutions such as orphanages and receiving good physical care and proper nutrition would develop normally even if they had little interaction with their caregivers. But studies by developmental psychologist John Bowlby (1953) and others showed that these children did not develop normally: they were generally unhealthy, emotionally sluggish, and generally unmotivated. These observations helped clarify that normal child development requires successful attachment to a caregiver.

In a classic study demonstrating the importance of attachment, University of Wisconsin psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow examined the reactions of young monkeys separated from their birth mothers to two surrogate mothers placed in their cages. One, the wire mother, consisted of a round wooden head, a cold mesh of metal wire, and a milk bottle for the baby monkey to drink from. The second mother was a foam form wrapped in a warm woolen blanket. The Harlows found that although baby monkeys sought food from the wire mother, they preferred and spent much more time with the warm, soft mother, who did not provide food but comfort (Harlow, 1958).

The Harlows' studies showed that young monkeys preferred a warm mother who provided a secure base to a cool mother who provided food.

Assista: „Harlows Monkeys“ [YouTube]: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MmbbfisRiwA

Harlow's studies confirmed that babies have social and physical needs. Both monkeys and human babies need asecure baseto begives them a safe feeling. With this foundation, they can gain the confidence they need to set out and explore their worlds. Erikson (Table 7.1, “Developmental Challenges of Erik Erikson”) agrees on the importance of a secure base and argues that the most important goal of childhood is the development of a basic sense of trust in the caregivers.

Developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth, a student of John Bowlby, became interested in studying attachment development in infants. Ainsworth created a laboratory test that measures a baby's attachment to mom or dad. The exam is calleduncomfortable situation— a measure of attachment in young children that assesses the child's behavior in a situation where the caregiver and a stranger are in and out of the environment- because it occurs in an unfamiliar context for the child and therefore tends to increase the child's need for parents (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters & Wall, 1978). During the approximately 20-minute procedure, parents and baby are initially left alone while the baby explores the room full of toys. A strange adult then enters the room and speaks to the parent for a minute, after which the parent leaves the room. The stranger stays with the baby for a few minutes, then the father comes back and the stranger leaves the room. Throughout the session, a video camera records the child's behavior, which is then coded by trained coders.

In the strange situation, children are observed reacting to the comings and goings of parents and unfamiliar adults around them.

See: "The Strange Situation" [YouTube]:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU

Based on their behavior, children are placed into one of four groups, with each group reflecting a different type of attachment relationship with the caregiver. a child with asecure attachment styleusuallyexplores freely while mother is present and engages with a stranger. The child can be upset when the mother leaves, but happy when she comes back. a child with aambivalent(sometimes calledperpetually insecure)binding styleesDistrustful of the situation in general, especially the stranger who stays close or even clings to the mother instead of exploring the toys.. When the mother leaves, the boy is very desperate and ambivalent when she returns. The child can run to the mother, but not cling to her when she catches the child. a child with aavoid(sometimes calledinsecure-avoidant)binding styleoravoiding or ignoring mother, showing little emotion when mother leaves or returns. The child can run away from the mother if she approaches. The child will not explore much no matter who is there, and the stranger will not be treated very differently from the mother.

Finally a boy with meDisorganized attachment styleIt seems to haveThere is no consistent way to deal with the stress of the uncomfortable situation– The child may cry during the separation but avoid the mother when she returns, or the child may approach the mother but then freeze or fall to the ground. While some cultural differences in attachment styles have been noted (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000), research has also found that the proportion of children who fall into each of the attachment categories is relatively constant across all age groups. Cultures (see Figure 7.7, “Proportion of children with different attachment styles”).

You may be wondering whether differences in attachment styles are more child-driven (nature) or more parent-driven (upbringing). Most developmental psychologists believe that socialization is most important, arguing that a child becomes a secure attachment when the mother is available and able to respond receptively and appropriately to the child's needs, but that insecure styles emerge, when the mother is insensitive and reacts. incompatible with the needs of the child. In a direct test of this idea, Dutch researcher Dymphna van den Boom (1994) randomly assigned mothers of infants to a training session in which they learned how best to respond to the needs of their infants. Research found that babies born to these mothers were more likely to demonstrate a secure attachment style than babies born to mothers in a control group who had not received training.

But it is likely that the child's attachment behavior will also be affected, at least in partTemperament,the innate characteristics of the child's personality. Some children are warm, friendly, and accepting, while others tend to be irritable, unmanageable, and difficult to comfort. These differences may also play a role in attachment (Gillath, Shaver, Baek, & Chun, 2008; Seifer, Schiller, Sameroff, Resnick, & Riordan, 1996). Taken together, it seems certain that attachment, like most other developmental processes, is influenced by a combination of genetic and socialization influences.

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image assignments

Figure 7.2:Adapted from Wynn (1995).

Figure 7.3: Jean Piagetby Anton Johansson, http://www.flickr.com/photos/mirjoran/455878802, used under a CC BY 2.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/).

Figure 7.5:„child in the mirror" ProSamantha Steele(http://www.flickr.com/photos/samanthasteele/3983047059/) is licensed underLizenz CC BY-NC-ND 2.0(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/deed.en_CA). There's a monkey in my mirror" bymost(http://www.flickr.com/photos/mmoorr/1921632741/) is licensed underLicense CC BY-NC 2.0(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/deed.en_CA). „Mirror mirror who is the cutest dog?” ProRomero(http://www.flickr.com/photos/rromer/6309501395/) is licensed underLicense CC BY-NC-SA 2.0(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/deed.en_CA).

Figure 7.6:Those: "maternal bond” by Koivth (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MaternalBond.jpg) is licensed under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en_CA). „an amazing father" ProJulien Harneis(http://www.flickr.com/photos/julien_harneis/6342076964/in/photostream/) is under licenseCC BY-SA 2.0(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en_CA). „Simon and Christian” by Joymaster (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Szymon_i_Krystian_003.JPG) is licensed under theCreative Commons Attribution-Compartir Igual 3.0(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en_CA).

Long descriptions:

Figure 7.7 long description:children's attachment styles. 60% are sure. 15% are disorganized. Avoid 15%. 10% are ambivalent.[Back to Figure 7.7]